For example, De Palma’s 1976 Carrie has some wonderful scenes, but extreme shifts in tone ruin the overall mood for me—as if the film can’t make up its mind what kind of movie to be. Hellraiser has its share of frightening scenes, but the overabundance of gore makes it difficult to watch. And Portergeist suffers from being too over-the-top, concocting elaborate explanations for the supernatural.

We can debate what qualifies as “horror,” but each of the films in the list below at least deals with horror thematically. So here they are, in alphabetical order.

The Top 13 Horror Movies

1. Carnival of Souls

Directed by Herk Harvey, 1962. While on her way to take a job as a church organist, a woman is haunted by a bizarre apparition. It compels her to an abandoned lakeside pavilion, beginning an eerie chain of events. Harvey’s macabre, low-budget masterpiece, with its appropriately eerie organ score, has become a cult classic.

2. Donnie Darko

Directed by Richard Kelly, 2001. Time travel, an improbably terrifying man in a rabbit costume, and a protagonist who may or may not be slipping into mental illness form the mystery here. This cult film straddles sci-fi and horror, yet is much more than either genre. Jake Gyllenhaal plays Donnie Darko, a troubled teenager in suburban Virginia who tries to make sense of seemingly disconnected, baffling threads and hallucinations. Everything finally comes together on the night before Halloween, when Donnie is forced to confront a decision that will change his future, and his past.

3. The Exorcist

Directed by William Friedkin, 1973. Even putting aside the hype, this remains one of the all-time best horror films. Ellen Burstyn plays a mother who becomes distraught over the increasingly bizarre behavior of her daughter (played by Linda Blair). Not wanting to admit the possibility that her daughter has become possessed by the devil, she nevertheless agrees to bring in an exorcist. The minimalist music from Tubular Bells by Mike Oldfield, which builds slowly and inevitably like the movie, was not originally composed with horror in mind. But just a few bars of the theme can raise the hairs on the back of your neck.

4. Get Out

Directed by Jordan Peele, 2017. This film achieves that rare objective: a horror movie with biting social commentary that inverts our expectations. Daniel Kaluuya portrays Chris, a young black man who joins his girlfriend for a weekend getaway to meet her white, liberal family. The family’s ostensible support slowly turns creepy as they fetishize Chris’ black heritage. Turns out that they and their neighbors have something nefarious planned.

5. The Haunting

Directed by Robert Wise, 1963. The movie retells Shirley Jackson’s novel about a paranormal investigator and his three companions who gather in an old house known for its terrible past. Claire Bloom plays the psychologically fragile Nell who slowly falls under the maleficent spell of the house. Despite a few campy moments that don’t date well, the movie still manages to retain its power. Wise understood that terror often lies in what is not revealed.

6. Midsommar

Directed by Ari Aster, 2019. Thanks to amazing cinematography, acting, and score, this film achieves an emotionally shocking punch. Who knew that daylight could be so terrifying? Following the traumatic death of her family, a young woman (Florence Pugh) in a dysfunctional relationship accompanies her boyfriend (Jack Reynor) and his classmates on a trip to Sweden. They arrive at a commune to observe a pagan midsummer festival, only to find themselves becoming part of the gruesome ritual. The movie unmasks the horror at the heart of human nature.

7. Onibaba

Directed by Kaneto Shindo, 1964. This black-and-white Japanese horror movie takes place during the 14th century civil wars that rocked the country and resulted in mass starvation. A woman and her daughter-in-law survive by selling the armor of wayward warriors that the two women lure to their death. While the supernatural element remains subtle, the minimalist use of repeated images (such as wind-blown pampas grass beneath a dark sky, or the Noh demon mask) creates a terrifying mood.

8. The Others

Directed by Alejandro Amenaba, 2001. Nicole Kidman plays a nervous woman who escapes to the English countryside with her two photophobic children during World War II, waiting for her husband to return from the front. This twist on the classic haunted house theme is done with just the right touch of pathos and supernatural dread.

9. Pan’s Labyrinth

Directed by Guillermo del Toro, 2006. Del Toro crosses genres in his work, which this Spanish-language film exemplifies. More of a fantasy than a horror movie per se, the plot involves a young girl whose widowed mother marries a cruel captain during Spain’s Civil War. The girl escapes from her bleak surroundings into a world of fairies, fauns, and mythic quests. These parallel worlds, each filled with different kinds of horrors and tests, eventually collide. I debated whether to list instead of del Toro’s Crimson Peak, a perfect Gothic mixture of romance, old house, ghosts, and dark secrets. But Pan’s Labyrinth is even more deeply imaginative.

10. Pitch Black

Directed by David Twohy, 2000. It may have the facade of a sci-fi movie, but the story actually confronts one of our primal fears: the dark. A merchant ship crashes on a desolate planet where two suns keep the planet in seemingly perpetual daylight. The survivors discover a mysteriously abandoned outpost and slowly come to realize that something horrific waits to be released when the planet is subject to the darkness of a total eclipse. Vin Diesel plays the convict with special vision who they must learn to trust in order to survive the night. This movie scared the pants off me.

11. Psycho

Directed by Alfred Hitchcock, 1960. Everyone knows the famous shower scene, heightened by the strident violins in Bernard Hermann’s powerful score. And by now almost everyone knows that the movie was inspired by real-life serial killer Ed Gein. Janet Leigh portrays an embezzler with a guilty conscience. Her change of heart can’t help her when she stops overnight at the Bates Motel, run by Norman Bates (Anthony Perkins) and his mother. Despite the dated pseudo-psychological analysis at the film’s end, the rest of the movie still holds up as a masterpiece.

12. Shutter

Directed by Banjong Pisanthanakun and Parkpoom Wongpoom, 2004. A photographer and his girlfriend accidentally run over a young woman who appears out of nowhere on a dark highway, then guiltily flee the scene. The dead woman begins to intrude into their lives, appearing first in photographs and gradually taking on a more corporeal presence. The final scene offers a disturbing image that will haunt you long after the movie ends. Be sure to watch the original Thai version, not the American remake.

13. The Silence of the Lambs

Directed by Jonathan Demme, 1991. Jodie Foster and Anthony Hopkins star in this thriller about an FBI agent who seeks the help of a convicted homicidal psychiatrist to track down a serial killer. Rather than the supernatural, it’s reality that makes this film so frightening, eliciting our fear of the real-life monsters in our midst.

Honorable Mentions

The original silent film version of The Phantom of the Opera, directed by Rupert Julian, appeared in 1925. Lon Chaney starred in the title role about a masked, disfigured musician who haunts the Paris Opera House and falls in love with one of the Opera’s singers. It became famous for Chaney’s intentionally horrific, self-applied make-up. Photos from the movie gave me nightmares as a kid. Later remakes, including the Andrew Lloyd Webber musical, prove rather lame in comparison to the power and horror of the original.

In Alien (1979, dir. Ridley Scott), the haunted house has been replaced by a spaceship. Sigourney Weaver plays the powerful heroine who battles a relentless alien with her less fortunate crewmates. With an iconic monster designed by H.R. Giger, Alien gave us a creature to haunt our imagination for ages.

The Blair Witch Project was a ground-breaking horror movie when it came out in 1999, directed by Daniel Myrick and Eduardo Sánchez. While I still appreciate how this modest, low-budget film proved that you don’t need flashy special effects to successfully create a mood of terror, subsequent viewings have grated on me. The shaky, found footage camera work can be nauseating. The constant whining and arguing of the three companions now annoys me.

Lastly, Ryan Coogler’s 2025 Sinners represents a genre-bending movie that has won multiple awards. Michael B. Jordan plays dual roles as criminal twin brothers in the Jim Crow South who confront a supernatural evil. The way Coogler contrasts the Delta blues in the juke joint with the Irish folk tunes sung by the vampires knocked me over—one of the most creative uses of music ever in a horror movie.

Well, technically, they emit electromagnetic signals that can be translated into sound. I found this out a few years ago when I stumbled on an exhibit of digital photographs by T.M. Glass, hosted at Ontario College of Art and Design University gallery space in Toronto. The enormous photographs were breathtaking. From ten feet back, they looked like perfectly composed photographs (which they were). Floral arrangements sprang from exquisite vases, usually set against a black backdrop. But up close, the images had been digitally manipulated with miniature swirls that recalled the undulations of Van Gogh.

Part of the exhibit included a time lapse video of flowers blooming, accompanied by “Duet for Pansy” by Canadian music producer and composer Bob Ezrin. Ezrin hooked up electrodes to the leaves of a pansy plant. The device he used translated the electrical impulses into sound. Then he jammed with the results to create a dreamy, ambient wave of sound. Very peaceful, perfectly embodying the calm, deep purple petals of the pansy.

Little did I know that Ezrin has a long, distinguished history in the music business. He has worked around the world on recordings, TV, film and live event production with a wide variety of artists including Andrea Bocelli, Pink Floyd, Deep Purple, Alice Cooper, Lou Reed, U2, Jay-Z, Peter Gabriel, Aerosmith, Rod Stewart, Nine Inch Nails, and Pete Seeger.

You, Too, Can Listen to the Music of Your Plants!

Ezrin used an instrument called the MIDI Sprout/Plant Wave. Paired with the MIDI Sprout App for iOS, the device allows you to listen to your plants play harmonious sounds designed by a team of artists. Each MIDI Sprout comes with two probes that measure changes in electrical currents across the surface of a plant’s leaf. Their technology converts these fluctuations into note and control messages that can be read by synthesizers and computers to generate music and even video.

Who Else Makes Music with Plants?

Ezrin isn’t the only one using plants to create music. In 2018, Winnipeg artist Helga Jacobson created a plant symphony. She assigned different plants to different sections of the orchestra (e.g., viola, French horn) based on their sonic characteristics. In Los Angeles, sonic artist Mileece makes plant-based music.

The evidence that plants can sing started forty years ago, when researchers at the Damanhur Federation of Communities near Turin in Italy started studying plant communication. They developed a device that can read the electromagnetic vibration of a plant and translate it into music. The machine reads the plant’s pulse, then uses an algorithm and a synthesizer to turn the pulses into sound. You can find out more information at Plant Music. The organization has published a book titled The Music of the Plants that explores the intelligence, sensitivity, and communicative abilities of the plant world, and also has posted plant music on Sound Cloud.

Next time you pass a bed of tulips or a hedgerow, keep in mind that they are singing their own personal songs. Strange and beautiful songs.

I was waiting to be seated at lunch today and noticed a series of decorative tiles on a wall. All of the tiles comprised abstract motifs in leafy patterns, but one recurring pattern was arranged to create a particular image. (Can you guess what kind of restaurant it’s from?)

I hope you find the result as delightful as I did:

Defense Secretary Pete Hegseth and other Pentagon officials have been trying to strong-arm Anthropic into making its AI product available for mass surveillance and fully automated warfare. They demanded that Anthropic remove the guardrails that currently prevent the use of its Claude program from completely controlling unmanned weapons systems.

Anthropic CEO Dario Amodei refused to lift restrictions that would let the Pentagon use Claude in this way, emphasizing that AI is too unreliable now for this purpose. In fact, as reported by Sky News, researchers at Kings College tested three leading AI models from Google, OpenAI, and Anthropic in a series of war games. In 95% of the games played, the AI resorted to using nuclear weapons.

Let that sink in: 95% of the time, AI used nuclear weapons.

Isn’t that what all The Terminator movies warned us about, with their heady blend of sci-fi and horror? Right now I’m imagining that scene from Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines where Air Force General Brewster pushes the button that lets Skynet initiate an automated war involving robots and nuclear weapons.

Hegseth gave a deadline of Friday, February 27 at 5:01pm for Anthropic to change its mind. But the company didn’t flinch. Now the administration is trying to disparage Anthropic, claiming the company wants to “defy democratically decided laws,” according to one post. Trump has decreed that the government immediately stop using Anthropic products. The Pentagon is threatening to move to other AI companies, or even tear out the guardrails themselves. So far, OpenAI has sided with Anthropic.

I don’t think this is the future that any of us want, no matter who you support politically. And I’m scared to death.

A photographer named Tun and his girlfriend Jane accidentally run over a young woman who appears out of nowhere on a dark highway, then guiltily flee the scene. The dead woman begins to intrude into their lives, appearing first in photographs and gradually taking on a more corporeal presence. They determine that they need to pacify the apparition by conducting proper funeral rites, but afterwards things do not return to normal as they expect. Something else is going on.

The subject of the movie—or the jumping off point, you might say—is spirit photography: the attempt to capture images of ghosts or spirits. Indeed, at one point Tun and Jane visit a shop and talk with the owner about the subject. The IMDb website reveals an interesting bit of trivia, too. When Tun and Jane examine ghost photos affixed to a wall, there is an enlarged photo of a ghost standing near bookshelves. The photo is a screenshot from the Willard Library ghostcam in Evansville, Indiana, which offers 24-hour surveillance of paranormal activity.

At its heart, however, Shutter is a movie about guilt and karma.

Without revealing any spoilers, I’ll just say that the film repeatedly presents things that are not what they at first appear to be. For example, there are the suicides of Tun’s college friends. Hallucinatory events. A haunting in a bathroom stall (which also brings a moment of comic relief). The death on the highway. The visit with the dead girl’s mother for the funeral. The movie constantly leads us to believe one thing, then shatters that illusion. Shutter creates a powerful effect by contrasting photography as a medium that captures reality with the audience’s repeated misunderstanding of what is happening. That’s one of the reasons I love this movie so much.

Along with Jane, we gradually learn what is really going on. The final scene offers a disturbing image that gave me shivers and haunted me long after the movie ended. Yes, there are some jump scares, but there is also the sense of being unnerved by what the photographs reveal, by repeatedly having our assumptions undermined, and by imagery that stuns us with the unexpected.

Be sure to watch the original Thai version, not the 2008 American remake—or at least watch the Thai version first. You don’t want to miss the original imagery, because Shutter is a film which uses horror to deliver a powerful message that lingers with you long after the final credits.

That autumn, I had begun to feel directionless, unsure of what to do with my life, dissatisfied with school, and increasingly isolated from any social network. It’s not surprising that such feelings would manifest as anxiety. At first, the attacks came at bedtime. But then they started intruding at any hour. The anxiety was not about anything in particular—that’s what made it so baffling.

Fortunately, I sought help from a school counselor. She taught me techniques to calm the anxiety and encouraged me to make changes to my situation. I switched majors, moved into a creative arts dorm where I knew people, and started attending meetings of the gay and lesbian students club. I learned that people commonly think they are having a heart attack or going mad during an attack. As I took control over my circumstances and made positive changes, the attacks gradually subsided. You never completely conquer them, of course. They are the monster under the bed that, every once in a while, creeps out to haunt you. But now I know how to sap its power.

Anxiety Disorders

Several conditions fall under the umbrella of anxiety disorders. In addition to Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), there are Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, and phobias. My particular situation in college showed up as what psychologists call Panic Disorder. Those bouts came on suddenly and peaked. But several decades later I experienced a constant state of anxiety for weeks on end—not technically GAD, which involves chronic, excessive worry about particular things, but an amorphous sense of panic. It was so relentless that I decided I would need to end my life if there was no relief. Once again, though, I sought help and got it under control. I learned to become aware of what I was feeling and thinking when attacks began, and how to derail the negative thoughts that seemed to precipitate the attacks.

The scariest thing about panic attacks is not understanding what they are—and feeling helpless to do anything about them. But we are not helpless. Tools include counseling, medication, relaxation techniques, and behavior modification. The important thing is to seek help, to know that you are not alone and don’t have to suffer in silence. That’s why it’s critical to raise awareness about mental health issues.

And that’s why I decided one of my characters in my horror novel Shockadelica would struggle with anxiety.

Panic Attacks in a Horror Novel

In Shockadelica, drag artist Kendall Akande has experienced a recurring nightmare since he was a toddler. Like many of us who grapple with depression, anxiety, and other demons, he’s a horror fan. Maybe the reason, he says, is that it inoculates him against his fears.

Kendall hosts a horror podcast with his best friend Jenna Chen. When they learn that their Victorian-era apartment building might be haunted, they see an opportunity for a podcast episode. But as they investigate further with the help of their quirky neighbors, they uncover something far more sinister, starting with the appearance of a goat-headed man. Kendall’s nightmare morphs into panic attacks. He even begins to suffer night terrors, where the dreamer awakens but is unable to move and senses an oppressive presence in the room.

Mysterious incidents and other horrors pile up, eventually causing Kendall to have a revelation. He reinvents himself and takes control over the existential threats facing him and his neighbors. Steel is forged in fire, as they say. That’s one of the messages I hope readers take away from the story—especially those readers who struggle with an anxiety disorder.

Weaving together supernatural legends from Ireland, Nigeria, and China, Shockadelica tells a story about fear, prejudice, and overcoming adversity. It’s available from Amazon and other retailers. An album of horror-themed songs by one of the characters known as the Bone Man, whose arms are covered with tattoos of serial killers, complements the novel and can be found at many streaming sites.

Closing Thoughts

The Anxiety and Depression Association of America (ADAA) is a nonprofit organization dedicated to increasing awareness and improving the diagnosis, treatment, and cure of anxiety disorders. Its sister organization in the U.K. is Anxiety UK. They provide a number of online resources—a good place to start if you or a loved one might need help.

Don’t suffer in silence.

If this article resonates with you, I hope you’ll consider subscribing to my Substack to receive free weekly episodes of my horror novel The Yōkai.

A version of this article originally appeared on the horror website Ginger Nuts of Horror.

Top 13 Witch Songs

1. Rhiannon

Performed by Fleetwood Mac, written by Stevie Nicks (1975 - soft rock)

Rhiannon rings like a bell through the night
And wouldn’t you love to love her?

2. Witch Queen of New Orleans

Performed by Redbone (written by Lolly Vegas and Pat Vegas), inspired by the legend of Marie Laveau (1971 - rock)

Marie, Marie La Voodoo veau
She’s the witch-queen oh
Of New Orleans.

3. Witchcraft

Performed by Frank Sinatra, written by Cy Coleman and Carolyn Leigh (1957 - jazz standard)

‘Cause it’s witchcraft
Wicked witchcraft
And although, I know, it’s strictly taboo.

4. Witchy Woman

Performed by The Eagles (written by Don Henley and Bernie Leadon) (1972 – rock)

Woo hoo, witchy woman
See how high she flies
Woo hoo, witchy woman
She got the moon in her eye.

5. The White Witch of Rose Hall

Performed by Coven (written by Jim Donlinger), based on a Jamaican legend (1969 – pyschedelica)

The white witch of Rose Hall
The devil she could call.

6. Burn the Witch

Written and performed by Radiohead (2016 — alternative)

Burn the witch
Burn the witch
We know where you live.

7. Beloved Enchantress

Performed by The Moon and the Nightspirit (written by Mihály Szabó and Ágnes Tóth) (2005 - folk)

O, beloved enchantress,
fairest of all,
Scythed empress of the ivory moon.

8. Black Magic Woman / Gypsy

Performed by Santana (1970 - blues rock); “Black Magic Woman” written by Peter Green (1968), first recorded by Fleetwood Mac; “Gypsy” written by Gábor Szabó (1966)

I’ve got a black magic woman
Got me so blind I can’t see
That she’s a black magic woman
She’s trying to make a devil out of me.

9. Witch

Performed by The Bird and the Bee (written by Greg Kurstin and Inara George) (2009 - retro 60s swinging pop)

Yes, I am a carnival
A house of mirrors
And I will con you
And all my tricks and all my magic
Will keep you dizzy
With desire.

10. Defying Gravity

Performed by Cynthia Erivo, from the musical Wicked, music and lyrics by Stephen Schwartz (2003 - Broadway show tune)

It’s time to try defying gravity
I think I’ll try defying gravity
And you can’t pull me down.

11. Black Magic

Performed by Magic Wands (written by Chris Valentine and Dexy Valentine) (2008 - grunge)

White light my time has come
All night out on the run from black magic
Black magic
Black
Black magic.

12. Wrong Bitch

Written by Todrick Hall, performed by Todrick Hall featuring Bob the Drag Queen (2016 - rap)

Now if you think that this witch won’t expose
The fact that Five-0’s droppin’ houses on hoes
Bitch, you got the wrong bitch.

13. Marie Laveau

Performed by Tao of Sound, featuring Bernard Fowler (written by Taku Hirano and Daniel Pearson) (2013 - smooth jazz)

Standing on the lakeside
The smell of incense in midsummer air.

Bonus Mention: 13 Witches Album

I also released my own album of instrumental songs about witches titled 13 Witches. The thirteen tracks portray various characteristics of famous witches from history and legend. Mysterious, magical, healing, seductive, dangerous, sacred, strange, wonderful. Enter the mystical world of the witch and celebrate the divine power of feminine energy across cultures and time.

Listen at HearNow.

The myths associated with Orpheus are some of the best known of the Greek and Roman myths. But underlying the various versions of the myth are contradictions that make Orpheus the uniter of dualities. Orpheus is son of Calliope (the Muse of epic poetry) and the ancient Thracian king Oeagrus. Apollo teaches him to play the lyre as a child. His legendary singing and musical skill moves stones and trees and calms wild beasts. Jason recruits Orpheus to join the Argonauts in the quest for the Golden Fleece because Orpheus will be able to silence the singing of the Sirens. Without this help, these supernatural creatures would lure the ship onto the rocks.

After returning from the voyage, Eurydice is bitten by a snake during their wedding and dies. Orpheus travels to the underworld, where his doleful music about his loss moves everyone to tears, thus convincing Hades to let Eurydice live again, but only if Orpheus promises not to gaze back upon her until he reaches the upper world. When he turns around during their ascent to make sure she is following, however, she slips permanently back into the Underworld.

The Death of Orpheus

What happens next branches out into different stories that are wildly contradictory. According to one version of the myth, he is so disconsolate with grief over Eurydice that he kills himself. In another version, he turns to the love of young males for consolation. The Thracian women known as the Maenads, initiates of the secret female mysteries of the god Bacchus, are mad with fury at being scorned by him, and attack him. Or, according to another branch, perhaps they attack him because he has gazed upon their secret rites. At first, the sticks and rocks refuse to strike him because those inanimate objects are charmed by his music. But the clamor of the Maenads’ music, with its drums, howls, and flutes made from broken horns, drowns out his gentle lyre, and he is torn limb from limb.

In yet another version of the myth, Orpheus travels to Egypt where he learns about the mystic rites of Bacchus (which are related to the Egyptian rites of Osiris), and introduces the cult to Thrace. Or he brings the rites back from the land of Lydia in the east (now part of Turkey) or beyond. (In Greek musical theory, the Lydian mode, named after the kingdom of Lydia, equates to the music notes of the major scale.)

The myth then branches again, and Orpheus was either struck with lightning by Zeus for having revealed the mysteries of the gods to men, or he turned his back on Bacchus and, perhaps to honor the one who gave him music, began worshipping Apollo as the sole deity, which caused a jealous Bacchus to incite the Maenads to dismember his body in revenge.

Dualities Galore

So we have a variety of deaths for a variety of reasons, and the commingling of dualities. This iconic musician becomes associated with both the birth of an exotic cult and death at the hands of an exotic cult. He becomes associated with life—bringing stones to life, stirring men and beasts alike through music—and with death —his visit to the Underworld, the Egyptian cult of Osiris. He becomes associated with tragic love: through the loss of his beloved Eurydice not once but twice, and through sacrificing his life because of his love for men. He becomes associated with worshipping the Apollonian spirit—rational, orderly—and with worshipping the Dionysian spirit—irrational, ecstatic. There is even a polarity between the refined artistry of his playing and the clamorous music of the Bacchants.

A style of poetry developed that was attributed to Orpheus. This Orphic poetry was recited in mystery rites and purification rituals. Plato mentions in “The Republic” a class of vagrant beggar priests who were devoted to these rituals and offered purifications to the rich. Followers of the Orphic way of life often practiced vegetarianism and, interestingly enough, abstention from sex (perhaps they feared the vengeance of the Maenads). It’s also interesting that Bacchants were frequently associated with orgiastic practices, but Euripides makes it clear in his play “The Bacchae” that the Bacchants were chaste. So again, we have a contrast between wild abandon and restraint.

All of these polarities coexist in Orpheus. He represents life and death, order and ecstasy, abandon and restraint. Elements of horror seep into the tale as well: the Underworld and its disembodied spirits, monsters in the form of Sirens, mystic rites of the dead, dismemberment. And at the heart of it all is music, possessing an almost supernatural power, a gift from the gods.

Season 2: Asylum

At the Briarcliff Asylum, the 1963 hit “Dominique” by the Singing Nun plays over and over on the record player. The repetitions of this relentlessly upbeat song become another torture endured by the inmates under strict disciplinarian Sister Jude. Later, when Sister Jude becomes an inmate herself, she sinks into a hallucination where she leads everyone in a rousing rendition of the 1964 rhyming hit “The Name Game.”

Season 3: Coven

Season 3 of American Horror Story perhaps packs the most punch in its use of music and music references.

The music of Stevie Nicks, a self-declared “white witch,” advances the plot in several episodes. Swamp witch Misty Day reveres Nicks and her music—especially “Rhiannon,” a Fleetwood Mac song that Nicks wrote about a witch—and even dresses like her. She cares for Kyle after his botched reanimation by Zoe and Madison, but he destroys her beloved recording in a sudden rage. Despite her fondness for Kyle, his violence convinces her to return him to Zoe’s care.

Later, Stevie Nicks herself visits Miss Robichaux’s Academy at Fiona’s behest and sings “Rhiannon.” Fiona is demonstrating to the girls one of the many benefits enjoyed by being the Supreme witch. In another scene, Nicks sings “Has Anyone Ever Written Anything for You” for Fiona. In the final episode, during the ritual of the Seven Wonders, Nicks returns to encourage the aspiring supremes and sings the Fleetwood Mac song “Seven Wonders” over a montage of the young witches practicing for the seven tests.

Coven incorporates several historic personages, including the New Orleans serial killer dubbed “The Axeman,” who slaughtered residents during 1918-19. He purportedly spared anyone who played jazz in their homes. Coven credits the sudden end of his killing spree thanks to the women of Miss Robichaux’s Academy luring him to the school to murder him. Zoe and Madison unwittingly release his ghost through a Ouija board, and he resumes his spree while initiating an affair with Fiona. Coven represents the killer as a saxophone player, in a nod to the “axe” nickname for the instrument.

Season 4: Freak Show

Carnival freak show owner Elsa Mars uses her troupe to lure customers so she can resume her former career as a chanteuse. Her signature song is “Life on Mars” by David Bowie (even though Bowie wrote the song in 1971, long after the story’s 1952 setting). Elsa’s pursuit of stardom as a singer propels the plot to its conclusion, when she performs on Halloween and summons an evil spirit that leads to her demise.

Jimmy Darling, aka the Lobster Man, sings Nirvana’s “Come As You Are” during one of the troupe’s performances—another anachronistic choice but appropriate lyrically for the theme of society’s cast-offs asserting their pride to be who they are.

Season 8: Apocalypse

Reprising Asylum’s torturous repetition of an upbeat song, the leader of a high-end fallout shelter plays the song “The Morning After” every day. The song—a recording by Maureen McGovern from the 1973 disaster film The Poseidon Adventure—perfectly fits the theme of Apocalypse. It’s the only song that plays on the radio, and it drives the survivors crazy, as perhaps leader Wilhemina Venable sadistically intends it to do. Then one day, Jim Croce’s song “Time in a Bottle” inexplicably replaces it, prompting a comment from one of the survivors. Later, the radio shifts again to another 70s song, Fleetwood Mac’s “Gold Dust Woman,” written and sung by Stevie Nicks. Referencing a song by Nicks hints that the witches of season 3’s Coven will be returning. Indeed, Nicks makes an appearance to perform “Gypsy” for a gathering of the witches and warlocks.

Season 9: 1984

This homage to 80s slasher flics climaxes with a planned nostalgia music festival at Camp Redwood, at which proprietor Margaret Booth intends to unleash mayhem on musicians and audience alike. The first band to arrive—the 80s one-hit wonder Kajagoogoo—ends up murdered by serial killer Richard Ramirez. Everyone else, including headliner Billy Idol, is turned away thanks to the intervention of camp counselor Trevor Kirchner.

Season 10: Double Feature

The first half of this season, titled “Red Tide,” concerns a black pill that unleashes artistic creativity, but at a devastating cost. We first meet two parasitic writers as they sing the Kenny Rogers/Dolly Parton hit “Islands in the Stream” in a Provincetown bar. Their fondness for singing duets leads to a tense encounter later on when agent Ursula Khan interrupts another performance with harsh criticism. Writers Austin Sommers and Belle Noir now view Ursula as a dangerous enemy. Later, we learn that Belle introduced Austin to the black pill after his humiliating drag performance of “Magic Man” by Heart. The song is appropriate given the magic lure of the black pill.

Season 11: NYC

Taking a detour into historical drama, season 11 sets its plot in the early days of the AIDS epidemic in New York City. Bathhouse owner and cabaret singer Kathy Pizazz—loosely inspired by Bette Midler’s early career performing at the Continental Baths—performs her shows for the bathhouse patrons. We hear her singing the Peggy Lee classic “Fever,” an apt choice with lyrics about feverish desire. She auditions a drag queen singing the Cole Porter tune “Anything Goes.” Again, an appropriate choice that reinforces the theme of sexual liberation. After she hires him, we see him practicing “Witchcraft,” a song made famous by Frank Sinatra. The song reinforces the role that tarot cards soon play in the plot.

A vision of Kathy appears bedside when the detective Patrick Read is dying, and sings the haunting ballad “Calling You” by Holly Cole. The song, performed by Jevetta Steele, first appeared in the 1987 movie Bagdad Café and includes the lyrics “and I can feel a change is coming, coming closer, sweet release.”

Often, the comedy originated in the contrast between what was going on musically and what was going on visually. Here is an overview of the episodes that used musical humor. While there are more episodes than this in which humor occurs during musical numbers (such as the episode where Ricky learns Lucy is pregnant while serenading the audience), I’ve focused on those episodes where music is used specifically for humorous effect.

Season 1

• Episode 2, “Be a Pal” (Oct. 22, 1951). Thinking Ricky is homesick for Cuba, Lucy performs as Carmen Miranda, replete with towering fruit headdress. Naturally, something goes awry. While she lip-synchs, the record first gets stuck, then gets bumped into high speed. Lucy attempts to keep up, amping her movements into fast motion.

• Episode 6, “The Audition” (Nov. 5, 1951 — a reworking of an unaired pilot). Lucy conspires to fill in for an injured clown in Ricky’s nightclub act. She impersonates a clownish cellist who auditions to be in the band, and launches a series of musical gags featuring the cello and bow.

• Episode 13, “The Benefit” (Jan. 7, 1952). When Ethel wants Ricky to be in her benefit show, Lucy insists that the only way to get Ricky is to let her be in it too. But her attempt to sing “Shine on Harvest Moon” reveals that she sounds horrible. In one of my favorite gags, she practices singing her scales at the piano. The first few times, she has trouble singing the final note when she reaches the last note of the octave—nothing comes out. Then on her final try, the doorbell buzzes right at the same moment. A superb example of musical humor. Ricky later brings her the song “Auf Wiedersehen, My Dear”, because it will “fit” her voice. All she has to do is sing “Auf”—which comes out sounding like a dog’s bark.

• Episode 14, “The Amateur Hour” (Jan. 14, 1952). Lucy appears in an amateur music revue with two twin boys, the three dressed as cowboys and singing a silly song, “Cowboy Ragtime Joe.” The best part comes when the tempo switches into high gear and Lucy improvises a crazy mashup of dance styles.

• Episode 28, “Cuban Pals” (Apr. 21, 1952). Jealous of a showgirl who knew Ricky from Havana, Lucy and Ethel dress as cleaning help to spy on the rehearsal for the song “The Lady in Red.” Their slapstick humor while pretending to clean the stage ends up with a bucket of water dumped on Lucy’s head.

Season 2

• Episode 2, “The Saxophone” (Sep. 22, 1952). Lucy plots to join Ricky’s band for a series of one-night engagements by playing the saxophone. There’s just one problem. She only knows one song, “Glow Worm,” and plays it poorly. Her feeble attempts to solo create some great comic moments.

• Episode 5, “The Operetta” (Oct. 13, 1952). Lucy and Ethel write an operetta as a fundraiser. Not only are the songs ridiculous, but the cast thwarts Lucy from singing in her dreadful off-key voice by constantly interrupting her solo, “Camille, Queen of the Gypsies,” whenever she opens her mouth.

• Episode 12, “Lucy’s Show Biz Swan Song” (Dec. 22, 1952). Lucy wants to join as the fourth barbershop quartet member in a Gay 90s Revue with Ricky, Fred, and Ethel. But her attempts to sing harmony—or even to find the pitch Ethel plays on the piano—are fraught with problems and create some great comedic moments. Lucy eventually manages to infiltrate the quartet on stage (of course). The others don’t discover the ruse until part-way through the song “Sweet Adeline,” and try to shut Lucy up by sticking shaving cream brushes in Lucy’s mouth whenever she tries to sing.

• Episode 13, “Lucy Hires an English Tutor” (Dec. 29, 1952). To prepare for the birth of her baby, Lucy hires a tutor to teach everyone to speak proper English. Unfortunately, she bargains for free lessons by promising the tutor a spot in Ricky’s show. As he showcases his song for the group, singing “I tippy tippy toe through my garden,” each awful verse ends with Lucy, Ricky, Fred and Ethel singing a series of nonsense phrases. Their nonplussed, deadpan expressions make the ridiculous song all the funnier.

• Episode 9, “Ricky Loses His Voice” (Dec. 1, 1952). When Ricky is forced to rest due to laryngitis, Lucy tries to be helpful by putting together his show. Except that she bungles the arrangements and hires five old, retired burlesque dancers instead of five young beauties for Ricky’s song “Sweet and Lovely.”Episode 24, “The Indian Show” (May 4, 1953). Lucy persuades a singer to trade places with her for Ricky’s nightclub act singing “By the Waters of the Minnetonka.” The call-and-response format of the song, contrasting Ricky’s rich baritone with Lucy’s nasally whine, offers plenty of comedy, especially when Ricky changes the lyrics to try to summon Lucy off the stage.

Season 3

• Episode 1, “Ricky’s Life Story” (Oct. 5, 1953). Lucy gets back at Ricky by upstaging him behind his back during his performance of “Lady in Spain.” When she becomes trapped mid-air in a hoist, Ricky uses her as his own personal “Babalú” and drums on her butt.

• Episode 3, “Lucy and Ethel Buy the Same Dress” (Oct. 19, 1953). Lucy and Ethel are going to appear on TV, having chosen to perform Cole Porter’s “Friendship.” The friendship collapses, however, when they buy the same dress for their appearance. Their mean looks and gestures undercut the lyrics when they perform.

• Episode 7, “The French Revue” (Nov. 16, 1953). Lucy bets Ricky fifty dollars she can get into his French Revue. She manages to sneak past the men posted as guards by donning a matronly disguise, then changes into a chorus girl beneath a table. She joins the four other can-can dancers while Ricky sings “Valentina,” but of course messes up all the dance cues.

• Episode 11, “Lucy Has Her Eyes Examined” (Dec. 14, 1953). Dilated pupils after a visit to the eye doctor doesn’t stop Lucy from auditioning for a jitterbug number. But her blurred vision leads to mishaps during the dance number.

• Episode 20, “Home Movies” (Mar. 1, 1954). Hoping to elbow into Ricky’s home movie audition for TV, Lucy, Fred, and Ethel make a western. But Lucy splices their movie into Ricky’s version in unpredictable ways. The contrast between Ricky’s earnest singing and the goofy western, which morphs into reverse sequences and fast motion, heightens the comedy. One of my personal favorites.

• Episode 25, “Lucy’s Club Dance” (Apr. 12, 1954). This episode is packed with musical humor. Lucy and Ethel organize a dance to benefit their Wednesday Afternoon Fine Arts League. All of the ladies try to form a band, but won’t let Lucy join because of her abysmal ability on the saxophone. (We’re treated to another rendition of Lucy attempting to play “Glow Worm.”) She finally wheedles her way into the band by promising that Ricky will help them rehearse. That leads to another fiasco, because none of the ladies can play in time or in tune. They mangle the tune “Twelfth Street Rag.” In the meantime, word leaks out that Ricky will be performing at the benefit with a new all-female band. The only way to avoid disaster is for the men in Ricky’s band to appear in drag.

Season 4

• Episode 23, “Bull Fight Dance” (Mar. 28, 1955). Asked to appear in a dance number on Ricky’s “Heart Fund” show, Lucy envisions performing as a lovely señorita. But Ricky has something else in mind involving a bullfighter singing “Fernando the Fearless.” Lucy gets revenge by appearing not as a fierce bull but a sweet, dancing cow with long eyelashes. As is often the case, the contrast between Ricky’s serious singing and Lucy’s hijinks creates comedic tension.

Season 5

• Episode 3, “Lucy and the Dummy” (Oct. 17, 1955). While in Hollywood for Ricky’s film debut, Lucy accepts an offer for Ricky to entertain MGM studio executives. However, Ricky has already committed to a fishing trip and refuses to change his plans. Never one to pass up an opportunity to perform, Lucy makes a dummy using a model of Ricky’s head. The ensuing dance number devolves into chaos as the dummy becomes hitched to Lucy’s dress and gets dragged around the stage.

• Episode 17, “Lucy Goes to Scotland” (Feb. 20, 1956). During the band’s European trip, Lucy finds herself in her ancestral home in Scotland. This Brigadoon-inspired episode, complete with comedic musical numbers, is a bit of a miss for me.

• Episode 21, “Lucy in the Swiss Alps” (Mar. 26, 1956). The Ricardos and the Mertzes go mountain climbing in the Alps and get stuck in a cabin. The episode features one small music gag with a Bavarian band putting their oompah waltz touch on “La Cucaracha” in three-four time.

Season 6

• Episode 1, “Lucy and Bob Hope” (Oct. 1, 1956). Lucy, Ricky, and Bob Hope perform a humorous song titled “Nobody Loves the Ump.”

• Episode 2, “Little Ricky Learns to Play the Drums” (Oct. 8, 1956). Little Ricky drives everyone crazy while practicing the drums. The running gag features a steady, reiterated drum beat, which forces everyone to conform their sentences to the beat of the drum.

• Episode 4, “Little Ricky Gets Stage Fright” (Oct. 22, 1956). When Little Ricky develops stage fright, everyone tries valiantly to get him to overcome his fear. Just when he’s ready to perform with the other kids in his band, the ukelele player gets sick, and Little Ricky refuses to go on. So Lucy steps in and plays the ukelele, kneeling to fit in with the rest of the kids.

• Episode 20, “Lucy Does the Tango” (Mar. 11, 1957). The Ricardos and Mertzes are raising chickens, but get frustrated waiting for eggs to be produced. Lucy “boosts” production by buying dozens of eggs, pretending they are home grown. But her plan to hide them in her blouse goes haywire when Ricky asks her to rehearse a tango number.

• Episode 21, “Ragtime Band” (Mar. 18, 1957). Lucy puts together a quartet with Ethel, Fred, and Little Ricky so they can play with Ricky at a local benefit. Their horrendous sound (except for Little Ricky) puts a damper on their plans. Ricky lets them join his act, but relegates Lucy, Fred, and Ethel to roles other than what they expected. During the calypso number, “Man Smart (Woman Smarter),” the three unhappily play the humorous musical tag at the end of the chorus. Ethel strikes the cowbell, Fred strikes the clapper, then Lucy evokes a groaning sound from the cuica.